Hobbes and Locke Social Contract Theory Essay

Thomas Hobbes and John Locke are two of the most influential political philosophers of the modern age. Their ideas on political philosophy, among other ideas, have helped shaped the Western World, as we know it. One of the most important theories that the two have both discussed, and written in detail on, is the idea of the social contract. Social Contract Theory is the view that moral and/or political duties depend on a contract that leads to the formation of a civil society. Thomas Hobbes was the first person to come up with the idea of a social contract in his text, Leviathan. As with any concept in history, other political philosophers have used Hobbes’ theory as a stepping-stone. One of those men is John Locke, who presents a very different account of how it is civil society is formed. Although both men have very different accounts on the social contract notion, there are some similarities between the two. Before putting pen to paper Hobbes had a front row seat to a quintessential moment in early English history—the English Civil War. The war was a dispute between King Charles I and his followers, the Monarchists and the Parliamentarians. The Monarchists preferred the traditional authority of the king, while the Parliamentarians demanded more power for Parliament, England’s quasi-democratic institution. Hobbes is somewhere in between the two groups with his own set of views. Hobbes believed that political authority is based on the self-interest of the members of the society, all of who are considered equal. He argued that no single individual had the power to rule over the rest. He also backed the conservative point of view that the sovereign must have absolute authority in order for society to last without disruption. It is in the rejection of the Monarchist point of view, that Hobbes and Locke find their first similarity. Both authors sought out to refute the positions presented by Robert Filmer’s Patriarcha, regarding the issue of the Divine Right of Kings. Filmer believed that God gave absolute authority to the king. Since God gives the power to the king, political society focused on obeying God unconditionally. Although Hobbes did agree that it was necessary for a king to have absolute authority in order to keep the people in line, he believed that authority came from the people living in the community and not God. Locke’s most influential political writings come from his Two Treatises On Government. His First Treatise is focused almost entirely on rejecting Filmer’s theory. Locke is in line with Hobbes in his belief that political authority comes from the consent of the governed. Along with this similarity, both men also agree on the idea that those people in a State of Nature will willingly consent to coming together to form a political society. They also agree on the belief that people would live in fear of each other regardless of their ability to use reason. Human nature allows men to be selfish. All people have the natural right to defend their own life, liberty, health and property. This fear is what leads many people to come together and form a state so that there would be a central authority to protect their life, liberty, health and property of all people within society. Along with creating the outline for the social contract theory, Hobbes was also a major contribution to the idea of the State of Nature, a hypothetical situation used to show how people lived before the establishment of society. In the State of Nature, life was â€Å"solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short,† characterized by self-interest and the absence of rights and laws (Hobbes 89). Hobbes believed that man was fundamentally evil and required a central authority to keep them out of the conditions of the state of nature. Locke, on the other hand, saw individuals as exercising moral limits over their actions. In order to answer the question of why the people should be willing to submit to political authority, Hobbes uses the idea of a State of Nature. This is a completely hypothetical situation through which he imagines what life was like for men before the establishment of civil society. In the State of Nature, men are naturally and entirely self interested, resources are limited and there is no power that forces the people to follow the rules of society. Men are also considered equal to one another in that even the strongest man can be killed in his sleep. There is no ability for men to ensure the satisfaction of their needs and desires as humans, and no prolonged systems of cooperation among men. The state of nature is a state of constant fear and distrust, or as Hobbes puts it â€Å"a state of perpetual and unavoidable war† (Hobbes 90). Based on the previous definition of the State of Nature, it would seem that mankind is doomed for eternity. However, hope is not lost. Using the power of reason, they are able to understand the laws of nature, which lead man out of the state of nature and into civil society. A Law of Nature, (Lex Naturalis), is a Precept, or generall rule, found out by reason, by which a man is forbidden to do, that, which is destructive of his life, or taketh away the means of preserving the same; and to omit that, by which he thinketh it may be best preserved. (Hobbes 91) The first rule of nature is to seek peace when others are also willing to follow in the quest for peace, â€Å"That every man, ought to endeavour Peace, as farre as he has hope of obtaining it; and when he cannot obtain it, that he may seek, and use, all helps, and advantages of Warre† (Hobbes 92). In the pages leading up to the natural laws, Hobbes describes what it is that drives us to seek peace. â€Å"The Passions that encline men to Peace, are Feare of Death; Desire of such things as are necessary to commodious living; and a Hope by their Industry to obtain them† (Hobbes 90). These are the things that lead people out of the state of nature and into forming a political society. People want protection of their bodies, property, and commodious living. It is through reason that men are led to the construction of a Social Contract, allowing for a life better then in the State of Nature. The social contract is formed through the establishment of two other contracts. The first contract is that they must agree to establish society by renouncing the rights that they had in the State of Nature. The second is that they must choose a single person, or an assembly of people, that will have the authority to enforce the various parts of the contract. The sovereign has the power to punish those who violate the social contract, which leads people to adjust themselves to the rules of their society. In order to understand the purpose of the Social Contract, Hobbes sets forth a definition of a commonwealth, or civil society: And in him consisteth the Essence of the Commonwealth; which (to define it,) is One Person, of whose Acts a great Multitude, by mutuall Covenants one with another, have made themselves every one the Author, to the end he may use the strength and means of them all, as he shall think expedient, for their Peace and Common Defence. (Locke 121) Without a common power to exercise force, society would be the same as it was while in the State of Nature. The Social Contract is considered to be the fundamental source within society for all that is good, along with being the force that allows us to live well. On the opposite side of the spectrum is another major figure in political philosophy, Locke. Locke’s views are very different from that of Hobbes, besides the fact that Locke uses the State of Nature concept created by Hobbes. For Locke, the State of Nature is a state of complete and perfect liberty to live the best life possible, while being free from interference from others. We must consider what state all men are naturally in, and that is a state of perfect freedom to order their actions and dispose of their possessions and persons as they think fit, within the bounds of the law of nature, without asking leave or depending upon the will of any other man. (Locke 5) In this state of equality no person has any power over any one else—everyone is subjectively equal. â€Å"The state of nature has a law of nature to govern it, which obliges every one; and reason, which is that law, teaches all mankind who will but consult it that, being all equal and independent, no one ought to harm another in his life, health, liberty, or possessions† (Locke 5). The state of nature is not a state of license, or a state of authority, in that individuals have the ability to do whatever they want. Although this society is pre-government, morals guide the laws of nature. God gives the natural laws to commands and us that we do not harm others, since we are all equal in the eyes of God. For Locke, the State of Nature is more like a state of liberty that allows the people to pursue their own interests free from interference. It is considered a peaceful state because of the natural laws and its restrictions on the people. Hobbes saw the State of Nature as being a state of constant war, a drastic change compared to the views presented by Locke. Although Locke’s state is predominantly peaceful, there is potential for a State of War. According to Locke, the State of War starts between two or more people when one person declares war on the other. This is usually done by stealing something from the other, or trying to make another man a slave. Since there is no central power to mediate the dispute and the laws of nature allow for self-defense, people are allowed to kill anyone that brings force against them. Without a force to mediate, the duration of wars is much longer and more brutal. Political societies form when men come together in the State of Nature, and agree to give up their power to punish those who disobey the laws of nature and give that power to a central authority. It is through this that the people consent to the will of the majority. Through leaving the state of nature and forming a society, the people create a â€Å"one body politic under one government† and are thus subjected to the will of that particular â€Å"body† (Locke 55). The only way for one to become part of society is through our own individual consent, meaning we cannot be forced to join the society. By joining a society, people gain a few things that they lacked in the State of Nature. These aspects consist of laws, a judge to settle disputes regarding laws and most importantly an executive power to enforce the law. The executive power is created for the protection of the people, their property and general well being. It is when this protection is non-existent, or the King becomes a tyrant by acting against the interest of the people, that the contract can be thrown away. It is with this that the process of establishing a social contract can begin once again, and also the power. Both Hobbes and Locke agree on the fact that people living in a state of nature will come together to form a contract amongst themselves, which ultimately leads to the establishment of society. Both Hobbes and Locke also agreed that people living in a state of nature would be living in a constant state of fear of one another before society is established. Hobbes has a much darker view of Human Nature, seeing them as inherently evil, while Locke viewed man as being guided by â€Å"rational self-interest† with the ability to self-govern without the Leviathan watching over you. These two figures have helped shape our modern systems of government among many other things.

Project Management-Transformational Corporate Strategy Essay

Overview of the case study The business environment is very competitive. Consequently, companies need to offer customers proficient and reliable service. If they do not, customers will switch to more consumer efficient companies. Furthermore, as companies grow in size, it becomes harder to keep track of the growing amount of sales and customer information. If a company does a poor job by not focusing and maintaining customer satisfaction, it can result in problems for both the company and the consumer. This study will focus on the Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company, more commonly known as 3M, and how it empowered its employees, improved its growth rate, customer service and sales by introducing a new approach to growth. This study also provides critical interrogation on the approaches and strategies applied by Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company in its efforts to turn around the company after the loss of profit despite the reputable strong tradition of innovation culture. Firstly, the study provides critical elements of innovative methods applied in order to exploit the profitable gains from the excellent research practise. This is done by explicating innovation process that has been applied at the 3M Company  leading to innovative strategic thinking coupled with the work done on the ground. It then identifies the curative recommendations in addressing the major problems that have been identified throughout the case. The fundamental problem of the 3M Company was the inability to exploit profitable improvements by exploiting its excellent and reliable research practice to the advantage of the company. Consequently, the company could not diversify its products in relation to the demands of the fast changing and sophisticated markets at a worldwide level. The company needed to embark on a major example change without compromising its excellent research tradition but to seek turn around strategies in order to maximise its profits. Recommendations and conclusions are clearly defined and they reveal what the author thinks about being an innovative leader who is able to support employees’ in their new ideas by implementing the company culture which is supportive to all of them to produce successful projects. QUESTION 1: What are the main elements of the innovative process at 3M? Is it possible and desirable for other companies to emulate them? â€Å"Richard Lynch defines Innovation as the generation and exploitation of new ideas. Furthermore it also provides organisations with the ammunition to move ahead of the competition. He states that innovation can deliver three priceless asserts to strategic management: 1. Substantial future growth 2. Competitive advantage 3. Ability to leapfrog major competition, even dominant competitors The innovative process at 3M has usually been a focus area for the top management. The company adopted a get out of the away approach towards the product developers in return worked accordingly towards innovation, together with technicians each team had a process engineer to ensure that the product was efficiently made. ï  ¶ The whole team did not face any risk if the product has failed. ï  ¶ The product developers should pay visits in the factories and workplaces to talk to the workers to get ideas for products. ï  ¶ The developers were not given the share of product royalties as the company believed that innovation was driven by sheer love of it. But the developers were encouraged by various means like rewards for innovation and grants for innovative projects. ï  ¶ There was also a dual ladder approach that provided the senior technical persons with great career opportunities to advance without switching over to management. Some of the elements of an innovative process at 3M is a free frame, people are able, capable and freed from any restrictions. Nevertheless someone should judge, review the Innovation Process. Stage stones should be set up otherwise it is no real process. Furthermore the consistency and the success factor should beat a specific period extremely revised and reconsidered regarding implement capability. In today’s competitive industry, cost plays a big role. Innovation is perhaps one of the most words that are over used in the business world today, and some of the organisations blow the innovation trumpet preach but don’t necessarily practice. But there are organisations like 3M that do practice innovation which gives hope to the organisation as they are using innovation in their daily lives through ground breaking products & services which made the company to be in the top ten of Fortune magazine’s most admired US Company. 3M Company sticks to its innovation, If we take a step back from the Innovation process, for the process to be successful it needs an environment to encourage Innovation, below are the points of what the environment characteristics needs to be: ï  ¶ Organizations eager to take measured risks. ï  ¶Ã‚  Business leaders being able to understand technology and the application of it. ï  ¶ An organization that is exposed to change. ï  ¶Ã‚  An organization that is brave enough to see beyond the financial benefits is not made visible that quickly. ï  ¶ Processes and structures to encourage brave thinking business leaders that are able to see what tomorrow will look like The Innovation Process: (Tidd et al., 2005). States that â€Å"the ability to manage the innovation process is an essential competence of any organization, but members must first understand the workings of the process to be successful† Figure 1.1 Adapted from: O’Sullivan (Innovation Process) – 5/29/2008 â€Å"O, Sullivan further explains that† Idea generation The first stage in this perspective of the innovation process relates to the creative activity of generating an opportunistic idea. This stage involves the continuous scanning of the internal and external environment for threats and opportunities that might be developed into an innovation by the organization. This stage involves mining the sources of innovation for new ideas and evaluating solutions to identified problems. An organizational culture that encourages creativity and empowerment can significantly support this phase of the process; this is exactly the similar culture that functional at 3M Company. The input typically stems from a technical insight into a product or process. This is evident in the case of 3M, when Fry had an idea of taking a peelable  adhesive that had been developed some year’s earlier at the 3M research laboratories and spreading it to marketers, it is further mentioned in the case study that it worked well. Opportunity Recognition The second stage of the process is opportunity recognition, in which the opportunity of developing the idea into a new product, process, or service is assessed and evaluated relative to other opportunities. This phase of the process involves deciding which innovative ideas will be pursued by the organization and which are deemed outside its interest. The undertaking of innovative actions is both expensive and resource intensive for any organization, and even large organizations such as 3M. Development If an opportunity is recognized as appropriate for the organization, then the idea moves to a new stage where it can be developed further. This phase involves the development of the idea or solution into a potential innovation that is ready for launch to its internal or external market. The development of an innovation can be highly resource intensive for any organization. It also applies to Fry when his ideas worked well and requested permission to develop the product commercially and he was given an opportunity to develop a manufacturing process. Realization This phase of the innovation process relates to the launch to the market, which is where the customer makes the final evaluation of the innovation. Understanding customer needs is essential to ensure that the eventual offering to the market meets these needs. Competitive Advantage: A superiority gained by an organisation when it can provide the same value as its competitors but at a lower price, or can charge higher prices by providing greater value through differentiation which results from matching  core competencies to the opportunities. They had strong innovation and research foundation at 3M Company that has ability of adaptability, although they experienced loss before but they managed to turn around the situation. It appears that they do not have a competitor in the world with the same level as they are. Instead, there appears to be several competitors in each sector or industry in which 3M offers its products and services. Frequently, as companies grow, they tend to become more bureaucratic and less able to adapt to changes in the market or industry. To conclude I would say that 3M Company’s existing controls are very good and support their strategy. However, they should also incorporate the other missing controls to ensure greater innovation power and profitability. Looking at today’s Industries and competitions amongst them, in my opinion ,I would suggest other company’s follow the steps of 3M, the have made some mistakes but were able to turn around the situation due to their elements of innovation process. QUESTION 2: What do you think of Six Sigma? Can other companies do the same? Firstly Six Sigma is defined as a â€Å"program that is used to improve processes within the organization be it in manufacturing or production processes. Six Sigma is usually prepared at defining goals and problems, measuring existing data and processes, analysing problems and goals, improving processes or tasks and controlling how the problems will be resolved in the future. According to the research I have identified three traits from Six Sigma† I.  The advantages ï  ¶ The benefits of Six Sigma contain the improvement and development of operating processes to ensure quicker response time, quality products and services and better monitoring of performance and work outputs, which I think it is the best approach to growth for 3M since they have dropped their sales. ï  ¶ This type of an approach or model surely and possibly saved 3M Company to come up with the said results and benefits because it provides a formula in which an existing processes is checked for consistency, efficiency and effectiveness, if it fails to measure to the existing industry standards it is revised and redesigned to match the best practices . I would advise other companies to do the same because it is the model that guides the company. II.  The costs ï  ¶ The Six Sigma model also ensures that costs will be dropped because there will be limited time spent in the process and more time to work on the actual tasks which is already handy at 3M. ï  ¶ It appears time its cost is huge and that an organization has to appoint or hire a person that would guide and train top management and middle management in the principles of Six Sigma which is wise for all the companies like 3M than running their businesses at a lot, dropping sale, losing profit. ï  ¶ Furthermore Six Sigma will also empower the employees to gain knowledge as it is the model that will require trainings, yes it will be costly but with productive results at the end. III.  The risks ï  ¶ Six Sigma might also have its own risks, some organisations might not be patient but looking at its approach, it had a positive impact on the 3M Company; it also developed leadership skills and focused on customer satisfaction. Furthermore, even though the approach does wonders in the company, not all  companies of the 3M embraces Six Sigma some of these reasons are very costly training of human force, only applies to the manufacturing industry, and it is just a trend. Other companies might think that, main issue that have to challenge with is if the Six Sigma really benefits the company or  it cost the company to sacrifice the innovative and creative culture for the sake of continuous improvement of products to satisfy the customers and accelerate the financial performance. Nevertheless it proven worth it by 3M because of the rescue it has done to the company while it was falling behind. Organisational Culture: In terms of its organization culture, 3M’s Company culture is promoted to be freedom and full of excitement and anticipation. Employees enjoy being heroes. 3M Company is being innovative in its cultures and company growth, so the focus needs to be on how innovation in 3M, including working cultures and people management etc. can be replicated and benefits different areas in our daily applications Goldman, Maritz, Nienaber, Pretorius, Priilaid and Willliams (2010:94) referring to Roger Harrison’s model of organisational culture mentions that â€Å"it has various attributes with four types of culture that could be easily observed at 3M Company although one called power culture seemed to be more dominant than others. Goldman et al., (2010:95) continue their notion by saying that a person whose personality is suitable for the culture of the organisation will be more likely to succeed than the person who does not naturally fit within the organisation’s culture. The table below reveals all these cultures and their attributes. Culture Attributes Achievement culture Competence, growth, success and distinction Power culture Strength, direction, decisiveness, determination Role culture Structure, order, stability, control Support culture Relationships, mutuality, service, integration Figure 2.1: Adapted from: Goldman et al., (2010:95). Organisational cultures and their attributes. This case study has stressed some of the key activities and principles that contribute to 3M Company’s performance. Most of these are not new and are certainly used by other companies. In 3M Company’s case they may be summarized as an effective company culture that nurtures innovation and a range of management techniques and strategies that together have delivered long-term success. Most of companies pay lip service to the organisation values and practice set out in this case study. There is evidence that 3M Company supports these words with actions. 3M Company hire good people and trust them; this will bring about innovation and excellent performance. 3M Company ensured that introducing Six Sigma is a good move than at other companies. Moreover, the success of the approach is due to the continual reinforcement of its objectives. Indeed, also the performance of individuals is partly judged on whether they are able to achieve the objective. Marketing pull and Marketing push technology According to Lynch (2009:283) market pull is one of the principal sources of innovation which is customer needs analysis. Baker in Lynch (2009:293) emphasize by suggesting that innovation takes place when companies identify new market opportunities and this is how 3M Company attempted to employ market pull by introducing Six Sigma and this exposes that they had ability for creating innovation. The 3M Company business area was completely different from what Six Sigma specialised on so they were necessary forced to encourage creativity, develop leadership skills, customer satisfaction, and exploration and focus where new ideas can come from a wide variety of sources. According to Lynch (2009:283) Technology Push is technology development analysis whereby other industries are being surveyed for their technology developments and assessment of their relevance to its own. 3M Company joined forces with external companies as mentioned above in trying to introduce new approach to growth and link the internally controlled culture of technology push even though they assumed that it was market pull. Their main challenge at 3M Company is that they need to know what technologies to push so that they do not dissolve their establishments. The diagram below illustrates how the two sources of innovation should be exploited by organisation without distinction. Figure 2.2 Adapted from Lynch (2009:283) Two major drives of innovation. QUESTION 3: To what extent, if at all, does innovation matter in setting the purpose of an organisation? Yes innovation does matter in this case because; many organizations invest in innovation in order to change. Organizations put aside a percentage of turnovers to change products, processes, and services. In particular, the  objectives should be achieved because of this investment. Yet, a very large amount of innovation activities does not meet these objectives. The motives behind failure provides clue regarding how to avoid such failure in the future. In this case study the process by which the companies should apply innovation has been examined. It has been examined by making sure that employee understands the process by which innovation takes place in the work place and then improving. In this case study 3M organizations has tried to lower their innovation failure rates and move faster with the process of growth as mentioned previously above about Six Sigma, the approach to growth. Looking at the process of innovation from idea generation, through evaluation, and on to realization, you will also find customers who become evaluators of the success of an  innovation in the company and by concluding there is also key ways to improve the ability of the company or organisation by monitoring the following innovation processes: ï  ¶ Goals, Actions, Teams, Results. Goals of Innovation The principal goals required by an organization in return for this investment vary between organizations. The following have been found across a large number of manufacturing and service organizations and ranked in order of popularity, with the first goal being common to most organizations (European Commission, 1996): ï  ¶ Improved quality ï  ¶ Creation of new markets ï  ¶ Extension of the product range ï  ¶ Reduced labour costs ï  ¶ Improved production processes ï  ¶ Reduced material ï  ¶ Reduced environmental damage ï  ¶ Replacement of products or services ï  ¶ Reduced energy consumption ï  ¶ Conformance to regulations Following are the critical factors that managing technical innovation in 3M Company: a) Organization culture b) Communication and c) Management The causes of failure can vary widely depending on the individual innovation. Some causes will be external to the organization and outside its influence of control. Others will be internal and ultimately within the control of the organization. Some of the more common causes of failure in organizations can be distilled into the following five types (O’Sullivan, 2002): ï  ¶ Poor goal definition It means that organizations find it difficult to define their goals. Poor goal definition requires that organizations decide on appropriate goals for their environment and define these goals in terms that are understandable to everyone involved in the innovation process. ï  ¶ Poor alignment of actions to goals Means that organizations find it difficult to continuously link the ideas and projects they are pursuing with their goals. This is perhaps even more acute if goals are difficult to define in the first place. It also influences effective management of the portfolios of projects that the organization is undertaking to ensure they are balanced appropriately. ï  ¶ Poor participation in teams It refers to the behaviour of individuals and teams, latent knowledge of the organization, and the particular skills of individuals to contribute to the achievement of innovation. It also refers to the payment and reward systems that link individuals to goals. ï  ¶ The poor monitoring of results It refers to sharing of the status of goals, actions, and teams involved in the innovation process within the innovation team and its main stakeholders. ï  ¶ Poor communication and sense of community It relate to ineffective channels of communication and collaboration that constrain knowledge sharing and the ability of employees to participate as a broader community in the innovation process and make informed decisions when needed. Steyn, Schmikl and van Dyk (2010:66) state that knowledge delivers sustainable competitive advantage as illustrated below Leading to> Resulting to> Increased revenue Knowledge creation Technology development Experimental and emergent purpose Innovation Enhanced value added Stronger sustainable competitiveadvantage Figure 3.1: Adapted from Lynch 2009:261- An emergent approach to purpose According to Palmer and Kaplan (2007:2) Strategic Innovation is the creation of growth strategies, new product categories, services or business models that change the game and generate significant new value for consumers, customers and the corporation. According to Lynch (2009:282) innovation is the generation and exploitation of new ideas. This has helped the 3M Company to gain strength in applying lessons learnt from previous experiences like the one of losing the sales and profit. This has made them to be able to deliver what refers to as the priceless assets to strategic management such as the following: ï  ¶ Substantial future growth: The process of improving some measure of the organisation’s success which can be achieved either by boosting the top line or revenue of the business with greater product sales or service income. 3M Company able to restructure by introducing the approach to growth. ï  ¶ Ability to leapfrog major competition, even dominant competitors: Ability to conquer competition focusing on extensive promotions to highlight the distinctive benefits or features of products. 3M Company had employees who are strong in making sales and come up with high successful product â€Å"Post-it notes†. In terms of the competition, it started internally. â€Å"Every company seeks the keys to innovation, but few find them. Over the decades, 3M learned how to be innovative and today the company uses that skill to great competitive advantage.† — Jerry I. Porras, Co-author, Built to Last â€Å"Innovation is more than just a bright idea; it is an idea that gets implemented and has a real impact. In other words, somebody has to make it happen.† — Ernest Gundling, Author, The 3M Way to Innovation: Balancing People and Profit 2.  CONCLUSION It is advisable that, organisation should have its own database in order to fix or limit the problems in the company rather than running at a loss. 3M Company created their database and spent about $20 million, it in an integrated database, which stores information on customers, products, sales, inventory, and finance from all divisions and geographies. If all the organisations of the same nature can follow what 3M Company did, access can be gained to the database through a user-friendly website. Strong search which bring together related products and services from across the entire 3M Company can be easily accessed. Personnel and partners can also access latest information on product prices, availability, specifications and reviews of customer accounts. â€Å"The profitability of customers and products and the performance of partners can also be analysed across the entire company allowing better allocation of company resources. This allows 3M Company to take advantage of market opp ortunities and cross-selling opportunities and at the same time meet and customize the needs of customer segments. â€Å"(Some of the information is adapted from Harvard Business Review) 3.  BIBLIOGRAPHY ï  ¶ Ernest Gundling, Author, The 3M Way to Innovation: Balancing People and Profit ï  ¶ (European Commission, 1996): Goal Innovation ï  ¶ Goldman, G., Maritz, R., Nienaber, H., Pretorius, M., Priilaid,D. & Williams, D.2010.Strategic Management: Supplement for Southern Africa. (1st Edition) South Africa: Pearson Education. ï  ¶ Havard Business Review. Vol 75 (6): 102-103 ï  ¶ Jerry I. Porras, Co-author, Built to Last ï  ¶ Lynch, R. 2009. Strategic Management. (5th Edition). England; Pearson Education Limited. ï  ¶ McQuarrie, E.F. 1993. Customer visits. Building a better market focus. California: SAGE Publication. ï  ¶ O’Sullivan (Innovation Process) – 5/29/2008

Difference Between Civil and Criminal Law

This assignment will consider the differences in Civil and Criminal law. It will explain the roles of solicitors, Barristers, Judges and Magistrates. It will also critically look at the features of the European Court of Human Rights 4Civil law is a private law. it settles matters between two individuals and organisations. It still has the roman standard in many countries because it was originated from the Roman law. The end result is mostly damages in civil law. Example of civil cases includes Donoghue v Stevenson [1993] where Donoghue sued Stevenson for damages of ? 00 for drinking contaminated ginger beer which had negative effect on his health, Millar v Taylor (17690) is another example of civil case 5Criminal law considers crimes committed against the crown ( R ). [6]  Ã¢â‚¬Å"Government identifies and criminalises behaviour that is considered wrong, damaging to individuals through criminal law† Jacqueline Martin and Chris Turner define crime as  [7]  a conduct forbidd en by the state. when a conduct is regarded by the state as being criminal, there is always a punishment attached to it†. i. e. murder and theft.Example of criminal case includes R v Wilson (1994) and R v Brown (1991) where R stands for the Crown or the State. Criminal law was made to protect organisations, individuals, the society and their properties. They are also made to punish offenders. The aim of sentencing offenders also include reparation, incapacitation, deterrence and reformation Read more: Differences between civil and criminal | Law Teacher http://www. lawteacher. net/criminal-law/essays/differences-between-civil-and-criminal-law-essay. php#ixzz2RCimULfN Follow us: @lawteachernet on Twitter | LawTeacherNet on Facebook DifferencesCriminal law is drafted by the government. It is made by the crown ( R ) and passed by Parliament before it goes to the monarch for â€Å"rubber-stumping† as law. (This process is known as ‘Royal Assent’). Offenders are prosecuted by the Crown when they commit crimes against citizens. It is the duty of the police to enforce the law. 8Civil law applies to the principals of common law but in civil actions unlike criminal proceedings, the Crown takes no sides. The crown supplies the court, the judge and if necessary the enforcement of the judge’s rulings. Punishment 9Criminal law punishes guilty defendant by either incarceration in a jailed.There are also fine paid to the government in exceptional cases. Community service could be the punishment on offenders depending on the type of crime committed. Contrary to criminal law, defendant in civil law is not imprisoned when found liable but reimburse the claimant for losses by the defendants act. Burden of proof In criminal law, one can never be guilty without â€Å"proven 99 percent guilty beyond reasonable doubt â€Å"as per Lord Denning. When one feels that the crime committed is done due to his or her insanity, then the burden lies on the de fendant to prove it.The Crown has the right to punish criminal offenders because all crimes are against the state. For example, if one commits the crime of burglary by breaking into a house and steal, the state will prosecute the offender when even the victim brings private proceedings against the burglar. Read more: Differences between civil and criminal | Law Teacher http://www. lawteacher. net/criminal-law/essays/differences-between-civil-and-criminal-law-essay. php#ixzz2RCicKzlV Follow us: @lawteachernet on Twitter | LawTeacherNet on Facebook

Instruction and Learning Styles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Instruction and Learning Styles - Essay Example At this level of higher learning, I would say that auditory learning style is dominant over the other styles which are only used in some subjects. To enhance that the auditory method is effective there are various learning habits tailored to get much out of the study time. These study habits may include recording of lectures for later hearing, group discussions, reading out lecture notes softly to you, tutoring others and participating in classroom discussions. Not all of the mentioned habits may be effective to me since some like taping the lecture for later hearing may lead to time wastage and poor attention during the actual lecture. I would prefer reading quietly rather than reading loudly except for exercises to enhance reading skills. The other three study habits facilitate active learning, and by this, different points missed during the individual study time are shared. After an individual study, one may tutor others so as to instill knowledge and enhance understanding for a l ifetime. .The study habits to enhance effective usage of time in visual learning may include drawing diagrams relevant to the study contents. Mind mapping may also be effective in cases of flowing materials, chains, processes and may used to link related information. Others may include use of flash cards, creation of mental pictures and rewriting of lecture notes in own words. The last style, kinesthetic, is the use of concepts given in a practical environment. It includes study habits such as underlining and highlighting key points in the notes. Answers to various exercises to be used in a lifetime such as of multiplication tables, squares and square roots may be repeated during other activities such as jogging and walking. One may also create own practice tests and teach the learnt topics to your group again. Reflective judgment Reflective judgment is a model that describes the development of reasoning from adolescence to adulthood. It looks into the thinking where knowledge is ob tained by solving problems from both the certainty and uncertainty. The model describes a dimension of cognitive development gathered from theoretical work of the scholars; John Dewey (1933, 1938), Piaget (1960, 1970 [1956], 1974), Flavell (1963, 1971, 1977), Perry (1968, 1981), Broughton (1975, 1978), Fischer (1980; Lamborn & Fischer, 1988) and Kegan (1982, 1994). The model is featured in seven developmentally related stages of assumptions on how knowledge is acquired. The seven stages are summarized into three levels of reasoning namely pre-reflective (Stages 1-3), quasi-reflective (Stages 4 and 5), and reflective (Stages 6 and 7). The pre-reflective reasoning involves the belief that knowledge is certain if only it is acquired through direct observation or from an authority figure. It is divided into three stages i.e. stage 1 to 3. In stage 1, assumption is that, knowledge is absolute and concrete. Knowledge is obtained from direct observation and beliefs need no justification. I n this stage, a belief is true if is the taken as the truth. In stage 2, assumption is that knowledge is absolutely certain though not immediately available since it can also be obtained from authority figures other than through direct observation. Justification of the beliefs comes from correspondence to those of an authority figure such as a teacher or a parent. In stage 3, the assumption is tha

Is War Against Terrorism Moral And Has It Done Things Better Or Worse Essay

Is War Against Terrorism Moral And Has It Done Things Better Or Worse - Essay Example This essay stresses that the Christians the world over were in a state of bother and tension so as to find out the real reason why the world had stood up against them and were hell bent upon destroying them. It would not be wrong to state at this point that Christians all over the world were vocal and carried out large processions as to encourage the US government and its allies to take steps to counter these very attacks. A number of wars and fights started in the wake of War on Terrorism and it sparked off a number of controversies as to the real reasons for starting the same on countries like Afghanistan and Iraq. This paper makes a conclusion that the war on terror has brought a change in the way the world is being run. The different governments have to take one or the other side in this whole muddle. The need is to understand who the winner is and who the loser is eventually. More than that, the governments have to seek ways in which they could counter the pressures that are exerted by the US regime from time to time. For third world nations, this becomes an issue of immense importance since they are already stuck in one problem or the other, add to that the pressure meted down by the US authorities every now and so often. War on terror is not a war on the poor yet oil rich nations, it is a war for the benefits of the super power of the world, which it wants to win no matter what happens.

Labor Issue Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Labor Issue - Essay Example The overall psyche of United States administrations is developed to cut off their budgets at all levels including federal, state, and local levels. One of the major actions that the administrations generally take being a quick step to cut the expenditures is the slashing of the jobs. This measure simply ends up in getting rid of the â€Å"excess fat† from the existing jobs. However, this step brings in more depression and disappointments especially among those who are the direct victims of such actions. The end results of laying offs can prove to be rather severe especially in those areas where there is no room for any dismissal, in fact, more personnel are required to fill the potentially vacant jobs. Laying offs may provide some temporary benefits to the administrations in short rum but in long run it can sabotage morale of the fired employees by and large. In United States, there are many important departments, which operate their functions under local level administrations. These departments play a significant role in the normal day-to-day operations at the local city level. Policing department and firefighting service departments are some of those departments, which perform their operations under the direct supervision of the local administration. As mentioned above, currently US government at all levels is quite reluctant to boost its economic activities and due to this fact, all the administrations taking all the necessary steps to keep the expenditure level at its minimum. The fiscal budget of Detroit City is aimed at reducing the expenditure by some $250 million with the job cut of around 2,600 employees working in the local departments (FireRescue1, 2012). As far as the firefighting department of Detroit City is concerned, the administration has aimed to cut around $160 million, which is around 13% of the budget. In the same way, the City Mayor of

World-system on the hierarchy of China and Hong Kong Essay

World-system on the hierarchy of China and Hong Kong - Essay Example First, a theoretical framework for the concept of the world system has been constructed using current literature. Second, the political and economic history of China and HK has been examined. Finally, the development of China and HK since the 1980s will be compared. World-systems theory is a set of nested and overlapping interaction networks which focuses on understanding the development of multicultural territory labour division across core and periphery regions (Chase-duun, 1993, 1995; Wallerstein 1974, 2000). Wallerstein (1974) defines the world-system as a multicultural territorial division of labour, and defines two types: core and periphery. These are defined by the nature of their industries: core regions are characterized by capital-intensive, well-developed tertiary industries and periphery regions by labour-intensive primary and secondary industries. The specific claims of world-system theory can be separated into system structure and system dynamics. System structure defines the characteristics and relationships of the system components, with reference to core, periphery and semi-peripheral regions1. System dynamics concerns the processes of the upward or downward mobility within the structure (Shannon, 1996). When Mao Zedong established the People's Republic of China in 1949, the government's priority was the forcible redistribution of property (Kenneth, 1992). Marrin (1993) and other critics describe the first few decades after the creation of the Republic as being full of chaos, famine and class struggles. The Korean War induced the United States and United Nations to enforce a series of embargo punishments on China. Furthermore, the Soviet Union withdrew loans and technicians in 1960 due to a downturn in their relationship. The Great Leap Forward and the Cultural Revolution (1958-1976) not only paralyzed internal production and economic activities, but also separated China from the world-system economy (Marrin, 1993). Because China rigidly controlled international investments and trade, Hong Kong became the only port where China could buy foreign currency and items that were not obtainable locally (Miners, 1991). Hong Kong (pre-1980s) Hong Kong became a British colony at the end of the Opium War in 1842. Although its governor was appointed by Britain, colonial government did not promote any ideology to enhance its political legitimacy. Hong Kong has often been described as a free society (So & Kwitko, 1990). Colonial government adopted a "positive non-intervention" policy towards the economy while maintaining a competitive business environment to attract foreign investment, and pursued export-led industrialization in the early 1950s (Haddon-Cave, 1995). After China's political upheaval in1949, an influx of over sixty thousand refugees to HK (Hambro, 1955) brought substantial capital and labour resources, which were used to set up manufacturing factories. The embargoes imposed on Chinese trade in the 1950s helped subsidize the HK economy, with HK acting as a buffer zone between western countries and the Chinese market.